Horizons ~ Beyond the Immediate and the Obvious

No matter how fast or how far a person runs, the horizon will always be beyond them. This being the case, the real distance and depth of the horizon is inside a person, it is in their mind and perception…

A race I will always remember
Not too long ago, when I was still a little boy, I found myself running from my father’s village to my mother’s, and from my mother’s to another and to another, in the hope of catching up with something that was neither a ball, some other toy, nor a bird, but rather the point, the line where the sky seemed to touch the earth. We call it the “horizon.” That line, that “place,” first presented itself to me hiding right behind the trees to the left of my father’s house. I started out that day walking rather leisurely because the distance between me and the horizon seemed so short. When I observed that the sky had moved, or rather seemed to have moved further away, I hastened my steps. Then I noticed that the sky moved further and further away. Well, being determined to reach the place where the sky certainly touched the ground, I kept walking faster and faster until I found myself running.

I ran for quite a while until I realized that “there”, where the sky and the earth met, was still further away, that it would take me more time and effort than I had thought. I went back—I had to go back—to my father’s village, back to my usual village life because I saw that perhaps much more was involved, that maybe much more effort was called for in order to achieve what I desired, namely, to get to the point where I could touch the sky, where I could climb the sky. I went back to the ordinary, the normal life and experience of the village and of my people. But I did not tell anyone, I did not discuss the experience with anyone, even though I did not stop and could not stop thinking about it. I thought to myself that perhaps a week, a month, maybe a year would suffice for me to reach the place where the sky and the earth embraced. I was absolutely certain that right there in front of me, over there, not too far away, the sky touched the ground. And I thought that perhaps all I needed to do was keep walking, keep running, and keep racing forward, without stopping, without interruptions, without distractions in order to get to where the sky kissed the ground.

Today, thirty-five years later, I have realized that I was not wrong. I was right. The sky did touch the ground. It touches the ground all the time. You may ask “but where and how?” The sky touches the ground in our perception. Look across from your window into the distance. What do you see? Or, go outside and look in the distance. What do you see? The sky is right there, over there, touching the ground, the road, the houses, the trees, the mountains, the sea, and remaining there. But keep in mind that this is all happening in our perception. In perception, things are the way they appear, the way they seem. No rigorous, critical thinking is involved. And this happens so many times, and in fact is happening now; it happens every time that we are not thinking deeply, with attention and effort. It happens every time we fail to allow other perspectives, other possibilities and other possible interpretations to emerge.
The sky touches the earth, embraces and kisses the ground, right there in a fixed position, as long as you do not move. Once you move, it moves. And when you run after it, it too runs, not towards you though, but rather away from you. If you stand still, it stands still. If you stay where you are, it remains where it is. If you move even an inch, it will move. It will never allow you to catch up with it, to touch it; it will never allow you to possess it, to tame it; it will never allow you to take possession of it. And yet, it is always there, “putting everything into perspective.” By that I mean the horizon enables us to see, for without horizon one cannot see much of anything. Think about it! Everything presents itself in horizon. Everything dwells in the horizon, everything is within the confines of the horizon, and depends more or less on this phenomenon. And if I may borrow an expression from Saint Paul’s speech at the Areopagus (Acts 17:28) and be at liberty to use it as I see fit in this context (just as some scholars say he himself was at liberty to do with the same expression from the writing of Epimenides of Knossos (6th Century B.C.)), one can say that “that in which we live and move and have our being” is the horizon.

Standing still, remaining in one fixed position is not in the nature of the horizon. Its every stop (or what appears to be its end, its boundary) is temporary and transitory, like a pilgrim’s stop on a journey whose destination is still far away. It keeps moving, and it invites us to keep moving too, keep working, keep meeting people, keep exploring, keep digging, keep sowing, keep cultivating, keep harvesting, keep looking, keep reading, keep writing, keep thinking, keep talking, keep wondering.

We hear, not infrequently, the expression, “on the horizon/in the horizon.” What does it mean? It means in view, in the possible future, in sight. That which is in or on the horizon appears close, and seems to be approaching; it is as if it’s right there among the things that one hopes to do soon, as something squarely within one’s reach, among the things that one’s abilities can handle. What is in the horizon, then, is something that appears “present” and seems quite achievable.

What is a horizon? And what does it do?
A horizon is inseparable from a living, perceiving human being who is in the open or in the frontier of the open. There are no horizons in closed spaces, closed places. The distance between a living human being and the line where the sky and the earth meet is very wide. It is infinite. It is far, far away. You can only measure it with your eyes, your mind and your soul. You can figure out how long it is only to the extent that your eyes, your mind and your soul can go. An application of any other measuring device will only frustrate you because the moment you start going after it to measure it, it will recede. But the truth is that what you are actually seeing of the horizon is only a small part of it. The bigger part is on the other side of the horizon. Every horizon has at least two parts: a front and a back. The front of the horizon consists of the part you are seeing, and its back consists of the part hidden from you because of the hills and mountains, the earth, the road, the trees, the sea. In fact, the line where the sky seems to touch the earth is really only a perceived curve or a perceived point of contact, but the horizon really goes far and farther away, without end: it stretches into infinity.

All the things we are seeing are in fact standing in the way of the horizon. Similarly, all the things we are thinking right now, all our thoughts and ideas, everything that is presently on our minds can be an obstacle to a deeper and fuller understanding and appreciation of the horizon. We have to let go of all of these things in order to begin to have an idea of the depth and richness of the horizon.

For now, let us focus on the part of the horizon that is visible to us. It is a world, the world that we live in or would like to live in. Normally, it consists of people, people of different religions and/or of no religion at all, people of different languages and cultures, different experiences, different states and walks of life, different situations and aspirations, people driven by different desires, values and visions, people of very deep opinions, inspirations, beliefs and deep convictions other than our own, people heading in a thousand and one directions. This world, this visible side of the horizon also includes animals of many different types and habitats, which eat different kinds of food and have different spans of life. It also includes many different trees, bushes and flowers, and different types of grasses, etc. Mountains and hills and valleys too, rivers and big oceans, streams and creeks, are all part of this side of the horizon. Small and big houses, low and high buildings, shelters and palaces, mud houses and ghettoes are all part of this side of the horizon that we are seeing. But we do not actually see everything that we know is out there, that is all around us, that is over there in front of us…

How do we even know that there is anything out there, that other people are out there? A long walk, travels, meeting people, doing business with people, education, etc. confirm that there are other people out there, other lifestyles, other ways of thinking, other ways of doing things, other attractions, other things that people consider as very precious and worth dying for. We read about these things, have actually met and seen them with our own eyes, have lived with people of different orientations and values, have had some great opportunities to exchange ideas with them. But neither our reading and studying nor our investigative and explorative eyes can exhaust the visible side of the horizon because even the visible side has its own invisible aspects and invisible faces. Let us take for example persons, situations and objects.

From time to time, a person whom I have known for many years, not only surprises me, but also seems to be a surprise to herself/himself whenever s/he says something or does something I could never have thought or imagined her or him doing. And people of this nature are not uncommon.

How about situations? They are similar. Even the most familiar situations often have aspects that are new and different, which we can see if and when we look with more attention and care. And the moment we become used to these, even newer different aspects of the same situation emerge. The same goes for things such as books, clocks, chairs, doors, and so on. A book often presents us with information that we did not see the first time we read it. And if you read it again, you will again see something you missed the second time you read it. If you wish, you can read it again and again, and you will see something new every time. The book will never fail to make you see something new and/or think something new.

Can a chair or a door do something similar? That is, can a chair or a door make you see something new or think something new every time you encounter them? Let us see. A chair, unlike a book, seems to have no generative power. It seems mute and sterile. But can a chair speak and make us think? The answer is yes, it can speak and make us think. No one would disagree that the chair of Pontius Pilate, the chair of a Court Judge, the chair of Saint Peter, and so forth do have a powerful message. Although these chairs I have cited are special, every chair can say something to us and really make us think. For example, chairs for children and for adults make us think different thoughts, which by the way, make us give children appropriate chairs and to adults what is suitable for them. If we did not think differently of these chairs, chances are we would give adults the chairs meant for children and vice-versa, or give the same kind of chairs to everybody, children and adults alike, seriously compromising comfort. And some chairs would even fall apart (that is, if children’s chairs are given to heavy people like me to sit on).

Doors too make us think. For example, the Door of No Return in Goree Island in Dakar, Senegal, and the Door of Hope in Johannesburg, South Africa, makes every visitor think. But again, although these specific references are special, every door, including those that may seem unimposing and insignificant, can really make us think. Every door has a message.
The bottom line is that even the most visible side of the horizon can have aspects that may not be totally obvious and immediately accessible. Therefore, the visible, that which seems completely clear can still make us think because it often has layers, folds, dimensions, messages that lie beneath its surface. There are always other meanings, other messages behind the obvious. And the moment we finish harvesting one message, the moment we finish reading one meaning, the horizon presents us another one, and yet another, and so on and so forth. Inexhaustible indeed, this horizon can constantly give new meaning, hope, color, shape, style, texture, depth, taste and strength to our lives for endless joy and delight, even under very difficult circumstances. Why? Because the horizon has power to liberate us from the present, the immediate, the obvious. As it draws back, so to speak, that is, when we attempt to respond to its invitation into the open, when we dare to go after it, go with it into the deep, when we allow ourselves to move with it and flow with it, then it can open new doors, generate new ideas, launch new beginnings, reveal inroads, illuminate new bridges, disclose exits, uncover new faces, make terrains of other possibilities visible, make cooperation and collaboration possible, make teamwork possible, bring along other solutions, other fertile soils. With the horizon, there are no closed doors, no human being is a finished project, no done deal, no finished once-and-for-all discussions, no insurmountable barriers. The horizon’s open field stretches into infinity.

All of this is but an invitation to read between the lines, i.e., “to resist simplistic interpretations that dogmatically ascribe fixed significations to [things]” (G. Weiss, Refiguring the Ordinary, Indiana University, Bloomington, 2008, p.58).

It is about the need to go on researching other possible meanings and interpretations of a text, to go on searching for other possible answers to certain problems, to appreciate the expanding limits, and to devote more time and energy to the lifelong project of exploration of self and of the world (and of God) (see P. Okogie’s “Horizon: the birthing world” in the Journal of Horizons of Horizons, Vol. 1, no. 1, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, 2012, p.10).

Via Fountain Magazine (By :Rev. Dr. Pachomius Okogie )

Rev. Dr. Okogie is Assistant Professor of Philosophy and Bioethics, University of Saint Anselm, Rome, Italy.

Potential Danger in Water?

Everything-from the size of raindrops to the height of trees, the speed of wind and the food chain produced in the ocean-is controlled within a magnificent balance. However, due to the unlimited demands of humans, the earth's ecosystem is subjected to immense changes and is gradually being destroyed. Some of the main reasons for this destruction are the fertilizers used in agriculture which contain excessive chemicals, insecticides, and detergents used in the home. These substances are carried into streams, lakes, and the oceans by rainfall, wastewater, and through irrigation, causing pollution. The deterioration in the ecological chain caused by this pollution affects the ecosystem, and thus the human health. Phytoplankton, the productive organisms which are at the base of the food chain in aquatic ecosystems, are microscopic organisms that produce organic nutrients (sugar, protein etc.) through the process of photosynthesis. During the production stage of these nutrients, phytoplankton absorbs the contaminative and toxic elements. As the larger creatures (invertebrates and vertebrates such as fish) feed on phytoplankton, they, in turn, absorb the toxins accumulated in the phytoplankton.

The phosphate and nitrogen compounds found in the waste material that are released into the environment go through some biological processes and are transformed into nourishing salts for the phytoplankton. When there is an increase in temperature, these salts may cause some of the phytoplankton to grow and reproduce excessively. The toxic materials released by some, and the use of excessive oxygen, are harmful to other organisms.

Another example of pollution is related with algae. When the number of microbial plants called algae reaches one million per cubic decimeter (1 million/dm3) of water, the consumption of oxygen required in order to mineralize, and break-down the organic materials found in the water increases, and therefore a compound of toxins which pollute the water, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), are released. This pollution can cause the death of fish and other organisms which live in the water. As a result of the reduction in water quality, an increase in the type of algae called cyanobacteria occurs and the biotoxins that they produce threatens human health.

More than forty types of algae produce various toxins. Some of these toxins damage the human liver, some attack the nervous system (particularly the brain), some can cause allergic skin reactions, and some can even induce cancer. The release of domestic, industrial, and agricultural waste and the high percentage of nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphor compounds) into the aquatic ecosystem can cause an excessive increase of algae in the waters. This algal bloom in fresh water is referred to as eutrophication. In oceans, it is referred to as red tide because the water appears to be a reddish color. Both present a significant environmental problem.

In low doses humans are exposed to these toxins by the consumption of drinking water. In Brazil in 1988, almost 2000 people developed gastroenteritis over a forty day period due to the consumption of drinking water contaminated by these toxins, and eighty-eight of them died. In South Australia, as early as 1878, many sheep, horses, dogs and other animals died as a result of drinking water from Lake Alexandrina, which was covered by scum caused by an aglal bloom called Nodularia spumigena.

Mussels, a delicacy eaten and enjoyed by many, accumulate large amounts of toxins because they feed on phytoplankton. One study found that in fresh water mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) that fed on cyanobacteria, almost 10.7 g toxins per gram of bodyweight was accumulated. This is also the case in marine mussels. It has been determined that these toxins in gradually increased concentrations are passed onto organisms higher on the food chain by consumption. Accordingly, we should always consider the potential risk factors before consuming shellfish.

Biotoxins are released into the water after being broken down by algae. Thus, when an algal bloom reaches high levels, there is an increase in the density of toxins in the water. As these toxins dissolve in the water, purifying the contaminated water requires not only expensive, but also advanced technology methods. Unfortunately, it is impossible to remove this waste in many of the existing refining plants. The toxin concentration in drinking and utility water should be reduced in regions where drinking water is obtained from lakes by mixing it with uncontaminated water, particularly during the spring when the algal bloom occurs. Thus, reducing the amount of biotoxins in the water to a level that will cause minimal harm to aquatic organisms should help to reduce the risks to humans.

Many types of waste released into the environment cause damage, which adversely affect humans. Polluting the environment may be easy, but purifying the environment of this pollution is a very difficult task. Indeed, humans were not created to act irresponsibly and destroy the universe in which they are mere guests. On the contrary, the human is a delicate guest with sublime duties. Protecting the natural resources provided for our needs and utilizing these resources in the most productive manner, without disturbing the balance of nature, is a duty of every human on earth.


References
Pouria S. de Andrade A. 1988. "Fatal microcystin intoxication in haemodialysis unit in Caruaru, Brazil." Lancet 352:21-26.

Carmichael W.W., Azevedo S.M.F.O. 2001. "Human fatalities from cyanobacteria: Chemical and biological evidence for cyanotoxins." Environ. Health Perspect 109: 663-668.

Codd G.A., Bell S.G., Kaya K., Ward C.J., Beattie K.A., Metcalf J.S. 1999. "Cyanobacterial toxins, exposure routes and human health." Eur. J. Phycol. 34:405-415.

Via Fountain Magazine ( By : Bahadir Can Gumussulu )

Faith, Worship, and Social Responsibility: The Ideal Person in the Qur'an

As with other sacred texts, one of the most important subjects regarding the Qur'an concerns its interpretation or tafsir. As a matter of fact, its language and communicative style require interpretation even for legalistic verses. The fact that the Qur'an is the absolute authority for the Islamic faith increases the importance of its interpretation. Beginning from the early centuries, Muslims developed interpretation methods such as recording the circumstances or historical context of the revelation-known as asbab al-nuzul. Whereas for early scholars, the asbab al-nuzul comprised the most important exegesis of the text-critical explanation or interpretation, later scholars attempted to interpret each verse of the Qur'an by collecting what the Prophet, his companions, and the former scholars had said about each verse. This technique is known as tafsir bi al-riwaya. And finally, Qur'anic scholars began to use their own opinions and the philosophical ideas of their times in interpretation (tafsir bi al-diraya).

 

These three methods of classical exegesis have been very helpful in understanding Qur'anic text. However, because they typically explain the Qur'an verse-by-verse, it can be difficult to use them as a means to understand the overall or core teachings of the Qur'an especially for today's readers. In today's world, people who begin to study the Qur'an can easily become confused when they see the same verse interpreted in completely opposing ways, say by radicals on one side and peace activists on the other side. To alleviate this confusion, we need to understand the major themes and overall purposes of the Qur'an.

To grasp one of the major Qur'anic themes, I will attempt to analyze the beginning of the chapter, Al-Baqara (The Cow). I propose that the major purpose of the Qur'an is to draw the picture of the ideal person by proclaiming (a) what he/she needs to believe (b) how he/she should perform worship and (c) how he/she needs to act within a society. This ideal person is a "muttaqi"-a true believer (muttaqin is the plural form). By describing the ideal person, the first five verses of the Al-Baqara chapter best summarize the whole content of the Qur'an. This passage tells us what kind of society the Qur'an intends to establish by listing the important characteristics of individuals within an ideal society. These are the first five verses:

"Alif, lam, mim. This is the Book. There is no doubt in it. It is a guide to the muttaqin. Who believe in the Unseen, are steadfast in prayer, and spend of that We have bestowed upon them. And who believe in that which has been revealed to you and that which was revealed before you and are certain of the hereafter. These are on guidance from their Lord and these are the successful."
The chapter begins with the mysterious Arabic letters called al-huruf al-muqatta'a (isolated letters). Scholars have suggested many theories to explain such isolated letters which occur 29 times in the Qur'an. For our purposes here, it is sufficient to mention that chapters that being with al-huruf al-muqatta'a usually are followed by the verses about the Qur'an itself.

The specific Arabic words used in the second verse are a categorical negation of any doubt-their usage signifies that the Qur'an contains no doubt at all, not even the slightest one. This doubtless book, as the same verse states, is guidance (huda) for the muttaqin or servants of God. To anticipate the discussion on the next verses, we need to understand more about the word muttaqin as it is used in the Qur'an.

Muttaqi comes from the same Arabic root as the word taqwa. Thus, the meaning of taqwa is implied here. We need to consider this very important concept to fully understand these opening verses of Al-Baqara. When we consider all the Qur'anic verses together in which the muttaqin are mentioned, the evidence points to the idea that taqwa means an ideal piety according to the Qur'an and refers, as an umbrella term, to zeniths humans can excel in both religious and human terms. More specifically, the following aspects of taqwa can be deduced from the Qur'anic accounts: faith, piety, obedience, abstaining from bad deeds, and sincerity. These can be considered the interdependent sides of taqwa. Namely, when a person has the sense of taqwa associated with faith and piety in his heart, this leads him/her to perform good deeds and prevents him/her from carrying out bad deeds.

The fourth verse of Al-Baqara poses the relationship between yaqin (certain belief) and taqwa. This relationship evokes many similar Qur'anic verses that end with a special emphasis on God's certain attributes such as All-Hearing (al-'Alim), All-Knowing (al-Khabir), and All-Seeing (al-Basir). These attributes remind us that everything is under God's control. Thus, the Qur'an attaches obedience of servants to the strong belief of an "Omniscient God." Concerning this subject, we should mention another term, which took on a specific importance in the Sufi tradition: al-ihsan. Although ihsan literally means to be kind and to do good, a very famous tradition gives it a specific meaning. According to the tradition known as the hadith Jibril, the angel Gabriel (in the form of a human) asked the Prophet when he was with his companions, to explain the meaning of ihsan. The Prophet answered the question by saying, "It is to worship God as if you see Him; and although you do not see Him, He sees you." So, ihsan refers to God-consciousness to the extent as if the person is seeing God. In brief, the Qur'an as a whole wants its followers to have such a high level of consciousness of God. Strong faith is indispensable for achieving this quality.

Another meaning of taqwa is protection-taqwa protects God's servants from falling into sin. How can a human being sin if he or she remains constantly mindful that God is ever present? What is more, the muttaqi is the person, according to the hadith, who abstains not only from sins but also from dubious actions: "A servant cannot be among the muttaqin unless he refrains from certain permissible things for fear of falling into impermissible things." There is another tradition that reinforces the meaning of abstinence for taqwa. According to the story narrated by Uqba b. Amir, the Prophet was given a silken garment as a present. He wore it and started to pray. When he finished his prayer, he took it off immediately as if with a strong aversion to it and said, "This does not suit muttaqin."

Another meaning of taqwa given by the Qur'an is "good intention." This meaning is clear in the following verse that was revealed about the sacrificial animals: "It is neither their meat nor their blood that reaches Allah, but it is taqwa from you that reaches Him." Here, taqwa is understood and interpreted as sincerity and good intention. Another verse in the same chapter underlines the relation between the taqwa and the heart, saying "And whoever respects the symbols of Allah, such (respect) should come truly from the taqwa of the heart." The hadith collections also contain many traditions supporting the same sense. For instance, after giving some advice to his companions, the Prophet says three times, "The taqwa is just here," pointing to his chest.

As for the importance of taqwa in Islam, we can state that individual salvation in the hereafter and social order in this world are possible only by the presence of taqwa in individuals who together constitute the society. The Qur'an often connects salvation in the hereafter (as exemplified by gaining the eternal reward or escaping from eternal punishment) to taqwa. Among many of the verses involved, the following ones are enough to show its significance with reference to the eternal happiness: "And hasten to forgiveness from your Lord; and for a paradise as wide as are the heavens and the earth, it is prepared for the muttaqin" (3:133). "...And the hereafter is with your Lord only for the muttaqin" (43:35). Not only the Qur'an, but also hadith collections contain traditions giving good tidings to the muttaqin about the next life. For instance, according to the tradition, the Prophet declared that taqwa and good character (husn al-khuluq) are the most frequent reasons for eligibility to enter Paradise.

Taqwa, according to the Qur'an and the related traditions, includes all good religious and moral qualities. If one asks "Who is the muttaqi according to the Qur'an?" the correct answer, regarding its overall exposition, would be the following: "The muttaqi is the ideal believer who has all inward and outward qualities celebrated by religion and lives a perfect godly life." Moreover, the first verses of Al-Baqara summarize all the characteristics of the muttaqin under the three titles: unshakable faith, fulfillment of personal responsibility before God, and accomplishment of social responsibility for the sake of the community.

The third verse discusses the attributes of the muttaqin. Three different attributes can be easily noticed in the verse: they believe in the unseen (ghayb), they establish the prayer, and they spend out of what they have been provided. In brief, the verse denotes the most perfect forms of the three categories-belief, worship, and social responsibilities. For example, belief in ghayb includes all the Islamic faith principles including the belief in God, his messengers, angels, revelations, the hereafter, and the divine decree. Meaning "certain faith," the notion "iqan" employed in the following verse, on the other hand, marks the highest level of belief. The preference of the word iqama of the prayer which means establishing the prayer "in conformity with its conditions" instead of the verb "salla" that has a simpler sense, points out the most perfect way in praying. In addition, the prayer, the most important and the most frequent form of worship in Islam, can be considered here as the representative of all the Islamic worships because those who are steadfast (iqama) in the daily prayers would be the ones who perfectly perform the other Islamic duties. The last part of the verse is even more interesting (They spend out of what We have given them as rizq). Many other Qur'anic verses use the expression "alms giving"-zakat. Instead, the word used here is more comprehensive- rizq or blessings from God. Rizq is not limited to zakat or sadaqa (obligatory and voluntary charity), but includes everything given to humans in this world such as wealth, knowledge, time, and power. Thus, the verse seems to call God's servants to share everything they possess with other people in the society in order to be counted among the muttaqin. The verse reminds Muslims of their social responsibilities which extends beyond their personal relationship with God. In summary, verse three provide us the picture of an ideal member of the Muslim society: he/she holds the highest rank in God's sight by having the strongest faith, perfectly performing worship, and carrying out social responsibilities.

This verse is so comprehensive that much of Islamic scholarship revolves around these three subjects-faith, worship, and social responsibilities. These subjects constitute the major Islamic disciplines: Kalam (Muslim theology) that is interested in faith principles (i'tiqadat), Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) dealing with the subjects concerning worship ('ibadat), and Islamic Ethics (Akhlaqiyyat). In addition, these three are the main sections in the introductory course books ('ilm al-hal) that were produced in the later periods.

The wisdom of dealing with the three subjects under discussion separately seems crucial because to confuse them with each other has caused serious problems in the history of Islam. First of all, since one's faith cannot be known with certainty other than by God, no one has the right to denounce the faithfulness of a people or any individual unless they, themselves declare their disbelief. Not distinguishing faith from actions, some marginal groups, unlike the majority, tend to charge people with infidelity examining their actions. Secondly, it is important to distinguish between personal responsibilities in front of God (worship) and social responsibilities within a society. The former is between God and a person and affects each individual's afterlife, whereas the latter makes a person responsible before the society. In this sense, only the state has the rightful authority to punish violators of the rules related to social duties. Likewise, declaration of war for a purpose, as Muslim scholars have emphasized, is the exclusive authority of the state. Therefore, individuals or groups cannot start war nor kill people based on their own decisions or their own understandings.

The fourth verse adds extra details to the faith principles touched on in the previous verse. "(a) To believe in what is sent down to Muhammad, peace be upon him, and to the previous prophets" and (b) "to believe in the hereafter" are included in the principle "iman bi al-ghayb." In the fifth verse, "guidance" (huda) is reemphasized and the muttaqin are called as "muflihun" (successful). This success has been understood as both in this world and the afterlife.

When we consider this exposition of the first five verses of Al-Baqara, we can conclude that all the subjects of the Qur'an can be construed in the following three: faith, worship and social responsibility. Therefore, the main purpose of the Qur'an is to inform Muslims about these subjects. It is imperative not to confuse these three with each other. It is also important to remember that the muttaqi is the person who has all of them at the highest level.

References
'Abd al-Baqi, Muhammad Fuad, al-Mu'jam al-mufahras li alfaz al-Qur'an al-Karim, Cairo: Dar al-Hadith, 1996.
Bukhari, Muhammad b. 'Isma'il, Sahih al-Bukhari, Beirut: Dar Ibn Kathir, 1987.
Ibn Majah, Muhammad b. Yazid, Sunan Ibn Majah, Beirut: Dar al-Fikr, nd.
Muslim b. al-Hajjaj, Sahih Muslim, Beirut: Dar Ihya al-Turath al-'Arabi, nd.
Nawawi, Abu Zakariyya Yahya b. Sharaf, Riyad? al-salih?in min kalam sayyid al-mursalin, Dimashq: 2003.
Tirmidhi, Muhammad b. 'Isa, Sunan al-Tirmidhi, Beirut: Dar Ihya al-Turath, nd. 

Via Fountain Magazine ( By : Halim Calis)

Perfection in the Physique of Birds

With bodies heavy for flying and light for diving into the water, birds push the limits of their physique. Let's take a close look at the artistry displayed in birds, which amaze thinking people with their wonderful flying techniques.

Able to dive into the water at a speed approaching 90 km, the kingfisher can grab its prey at this speed in a depth of 60 cm, instantly pivot back and then, using its wings as oars, surface above the water. In order not to lose its prey, the bird's precisely timed diving and surfacing takes place in three seconds.

A torpedo as light as a fly

The most basic factor that enables an animate creature to dive into the water is its body being heavier than the water. With a weight of 40 g and a length of 18 cm, the kingfisher (Alcedo atthis) should remain on top of the water and not be able to catch fish because it cannot dive. However, because God put the sustenance of this bird in the depths of the sea, He gave it the special diving ability. Able to dive into the water at a speed approaching 90 km, the kingfisher can grab its prey at this speed in a depth of 60 cm, instantly pivot back and then, using its wings as oars, surface above the water. In order not to lose its prey, the bird's precisely timed diving and surfacing takes place in three seconds. In a short period of time the kingfisher has traveled a distance 414 times its height. This shows that it can move as fast as a fighter aircraft. If we consider what the kingfisher does on a human scale, a person would be able to dive 26 meters in three seconds and then resurface with a prey the size of a sheepdog. Here another interesting point should be made. The fish the kingfisher wants to catch is actually in a different position than it would visually appear from the sky due to the difference of the degrees of deflection of light in water and air. Bereft of any knowledge of optics, how does this bird solve this problem of physics?

How heavy is a bird feather?

There are physical limits to bird's flying capabilities. In order for a bird to be able to fly, its weight should not be more than 15 kg. In order for birds heavier than this to fly, their wings have to be proportionately larger so it is difficult for this big a bird with heavy wings to fly. Male silent swans (Cygnus olor) weigh more than 14 kg; in fact, there are even some that weigh 20 kg. However, God compensated for this situation with a special structure. Like other birds, the silent swans have some bones filled with air and the inner part of these bones has been made stronger with small props. For this reason, the feathers and bones of these birds are one-tenth as heavy as their bodies. There are more than 12,000 muscle ligaments in the wings of swans to activate the feathers used in flying. Long (50 cm) wing feathers greatly increase the carriage surface of the wings. Each feather can carry 200 grams of weight during flight. For this reason, a swan that loses just one wing feather can no longer take flight. It takes 60 days for the feathers to be completely renewed.

Because the owl's ears were created asymmetrically (the right ear is higher), sounds reach the close ear 1/300,000 of a second earlier. This small amount of time difference is enough for the owl to determine the exact place of the source of the sound.

Are owls flying radar stations?

Under normal conditions it is not possible to hear the sound waves of a mouse eating a hazelnut in a hayloft. Possessing a sensitive receiver, owls are an exception. The facial structure of owls resembles the high tech early warning equipment on AWACS planes. Focusing on even the smallest sound wave just like a satellite antenna, this structure cannot be explained by the intelligence of an owl.

Because the owl's ears were created asymmetrically (the right ear is higher), sounds reach the close ear 1/300,000 of a second earlier. This small time difference is enough for the owl to determine the exact location of the source of the sound. Through the 95,000 nerve cells in the simultaneous hearing center, the brain imagines a 3-D image of the prey. Due to the anatomy of it 14 neck vertebrae (humans and other mammals have seven vertebrae), the owl was given the capability of turning its head 270 degrees and determining the exact position of its prey. While flying towards the place where the sound came from, the owl can constantly recalculate the position of the prey relative to its own position, even if the prey changes its place. As a result of this precise calculation, only three seconds passes between the moment the owl first heard the sound of the prey and the moment it makes its deadly attack.

Is there a mathematical formula for remaining alive?

The formula is this: 7-15-70. It is difficult to immediately understand what these three numbers mean. However, these numbers make it almost impossible for a starling to be caught by its enemies.

We can explain the meaning of these numbers as follows: Whatever 7 close neighbors do, imitate them; constantly fly at least 15 cm from them; do not ever fly more than 70 km per hour. There is one more rule: Keep your distance from all enemies. When these principles are followed, enormous protection follows.

Flocks of starlings are comprised of several thousands of birds that move like one organism. In less than a second, the flock's direction, size and breadth can change. In this situation their enemies do not have much of a chance against such a tight mass. For predatory birds need to determine their targets in order to catch their prey. The fast and sudden movements of the flock prevent attack from predatory birds. In spite of this, predators who attempt attack go back empty-handed. For acting like one body, this enormous flock encompasses the enemy in a counter current with the waves they create and narrow it down until the bird can no longer fly. Becoming dazed, the predatory bird has no choice but to fly away from the flock. This instructive action of the starlings brings to mind the Qur'anic verse: "There is not an animal (that lives) on the earth, not a being that flies on its wings, but (forms part of) communities like you" (6:38).

The world's best camera can see objects as big as a mouse from a height of 300 meters. This is an amazing thing, but even so, no camera can compare in any respect to an eagle's eyes.

Can eagles see from the side?

The world's best camera can see objects as big as a mouse from a height of 300 meters. This is an amazing thing, but even so, no camera can compare in any respect to an eagle's eyes. Eagles can clearly see their targets from a distance of more than 1,000 meters. Eagles can even see a fish in fine detail from this distance. This special quality bestowed upon eagles is something technology would have difficulty imitating. For the lens of the eagle's eye is soft contrary to human eyes' and it sees clearly more quickly and it more greatly magnifies its object. In addition, each of the eyes of the eagle has two separate vision centers. This allows the birds to see clearly both in front of them and at their sides. To attain this perfect vision, more than a million light receiving cells are on duty in each square millimeter of the retina. Comparing this to a human eye, a person has 200,000 cells in the same unit of space in the retina. Due to this structure of the retina and lens, an eagle's eyes are as large as a human being's eyes. If a human eye were to have the same capability, it would have to be as large as an apple. Because a human does not need to hunt like an eagle, he was not burdened with such big eyes.

How much can a brain be shaken?

G-force expresses changes in a body's weight caused by acceleration. For example, when a jet is climbing towards the sky, the gravity a pilot is subject to increases immensely and his blood puts a lot of pressure on the veins in his legs. A space vehicle has 3 G when it takes off; a war plane has an average of 10 G; and a car's peak force is 120 G when it crashes head on at full speed. With every peck, a woodpecker's beak reaches 1,200 G in a way that is hard to believe. In other words, it is like the bird's head hits a cement wall at a speed of 25 km per hour, and the woodpecker does this 20 times a second.

Experiencing pressures greater than 14 G is deadly for a human being. In comparison, woodpeckers have been given the ability to endure several hundred times what astronauts experience in their landings. This is only possible with a very special histological/anatomic structure and a skull created with perfect proportions. With the beak hitting a tree in a hard manner, a woodpecker's brain almost completely fills its skull in order to prevent a trauma from developing. Created with a spongy structure, its bone structure acts as a shock absorber. The head and nape of the neck muscles contract towards the place it has hit and the waves from the blow become harmless. Even the lower part of the tongue is wound around the skull once in order to secure the brain and protect it from shaking. This situation does not create a problem or difficulty for woodpeckers which hit their heads against trees for a handful of larva, for they have been prepared for these conditions in their creation.

Small birds creating the power of a hurricane

Having a spread of 35 cm between two wings when they are opened, swallows weigh less than a normal size lighter. At first glance the apparent body structure of swallows suggests that they should only display an average flight capability with their deficient ability to maneuver. However, when we go out into nature and see swallows soaring in the countryside, we see that the situation is not like that at all. With the amazing way in which they were created, swallows succeed in doing a job that appears to be almost impossible physically. These birds can pass with jet speed through a space only 2 cm wider than their bodies. They succeed in this by flapping their wings rhythmically without stopping. Researchers have determined that they do this by means of a wing structure that moves with a special mechanism. The upper part of the wings of swallows can turn the air into an eddy. With the pressure created by this eddy, a great power of lifting and balancing occurs. The birds virtually fly with the power of hurricanes. Until now, this style of flying was only known to exist with insects. By seemingly gluing their wings to their bodies with this wonderful mechanism bestowed by the Creator, swallows easily pass through difficult places. Consequently, swallows can make 90-degree turns at astonishing speeds. Supersonic planes also benefit by generating these same kind of mini-hurricanes.

Can there be flying submarines?

Every year in May, tens of thousands of sharks, whales and dolphins come to the South African coastlines because of the schools of sardines (Sardinella). However, the strongest sardine hunter is not under water; it is a bird eyeing its prey from 30 meters high. The northern gannet (Morus capensis) a much better hunter than other sea birds, has a perfect body structure. While even sharks can only catch one out of two prey, the northern gannet's perfect hunting techniques enable it to make a record success. The first reason for this is its reaching its target quickly and directly; the second reason is its being able to move about comfortably under water. These sea birds can go down 10 meters at first and then 20 meters by flapping their wings. They can dive at a speed of 120 km per hour. Their capability of holding oxygen-rich air in their air bags allows them to hunt up to one minute under water. Because they usually finish their prey under water, it is not common for them to bring it to the surface.

As research supported by technological possibilities increases, many more amazing biological mechanisms will be discovered. Doesn't it strain reason to explain the existence of animate creatures that continue life with such fine calculations by means of chance? 

Via Fountain Magazine (By : Mehmet Mertek)

The Enigma of Time

Under no circumstances can it be said that any nation possesses a greater authority than others with respect to physical power or spiritual values. However, when it comes to managing time and utilizing every second as if they were precious stones, some nations are considerably more advanced than others.

The Enigma of Time

Time is not a void traversed from above. It is a precious jewel to be acquired and put to use. It is the most valuable commodity we have, and an important capital bestowed upon humanity in this marketplace we call the world. Throughout history, those who have been able to fathom the mystery of time, have uncovered the secret of how to exist with it. Those who considered time a vacuum were devoured within its gnashing teeth.

If any nation desires to attain honor, splendor, and glory, with the hopes of being a balancing factor in international relations, then they must first learn to command time. Not even a millisecond of it should be wasted, and the methods used to fully utilize time should be taught to succeeding generations.

There is one significant rule for those on this path: they have to claim full possession of their past as a foundation on which they can develop plans and projects for the future; while doing so, they should still focus on current issues, and be conscious of the present dynamics. What use is it today that we were happy and fortunate yesterday? What will remain tomorrow, even if the present circumstances shower us with comfort and felicity? If the future is a glasshouse built upon dreams, what will it offer to today’s unfortunate? The past, indeed, ought to be seen as a crown upon our heads and a source of pride - but we should be prepared for the future with such diligence and spirit that those prosperous years do not merely remain as epic tales and legends in the moth-eaten pages of books.

Creation—each particle of which is a world of hidden truth and wisdom, each instant of which contains a lesson to be learned—is an exhibition for those vigilant souls who gaze carefully upon it; it is a book with each page on display, providing inspiration for hearts; and it is a musical where every note that is heard instills the knowledge of God in the listener’s conscience and heart.

We witness the wonders of creation in a multitude of ways. We gaze upon the luminous sun, the azure sky, and the endless seas bubbling with our aspirations for eternity. We look out from between peaks and plains, with the consciousness of the vicegerents of the earth. We come face to face with distant stars by observing the depths of space through telescopes, and become acquainted with tiny insects by descending to their microscopic world. We attempt to perceive and understand the events of nature within the passing of seasons, recognizing the springs, summers, autumns, and winters that come one after another, year after year. We ceaselessly contemplate the resplendent world of the eyes and ears, listening for the wild chatter in the forest depths alongside the sweet susurrus of the wind rustling in the leaves. We listen to the sorrowful poets of day and the eloquent orators of night reclined upon their thrones in the tree branches. We strive to see the brilliant countenances in places of worship and in other works of art. We experience, one after another, heat and cold, bitter and sweet, beautiful and ugly, and discover the unifying spirit behind opposites. We greet the future with new syntheses, new evaluations, and new discoveries, both in our conscience and the external world, as we prize each moment of life with an appreciative contemplation. Indeed, we find the essence of existence through all of these; we accelerate the flow of existence with these. And then, when the time comes, we tear away from it entirely. Thus is the luminous path to union with time.

Those who complain of not having enough time to work and think, and who perpetually curse and bemoan time, can falter through heedlessness and deviancy; whereas those great souls who etch their spirits’ inspirations on every fragment of time have found it to be even more expansive than they initially thought. By using time wisely, they have explored all facets of creation, down to the minutest detail. With this care and vigilance, and through perceiving the reality beyond creation, great thinkers like Ghazali attained a second existence; those like Rumi were entranced by the uplifting breaths of time, and embraced every corner of the world with its clamor; scientists like Newton, interpreting even the smallest event, such as an apple falling to the ground, discovered the laws like gravity, and proved that time could suffice for everything. These personalities of great stature, at one with time, utilized the inheritance of the past in the best possible way, and investigated, in every detail, the time in which they lived. From the moment at which they were recognized, they were respectfully greeted and welcomed the world over and, like the seeds sprouting on the hardest rock, they took root in the consciences of even the most primitive societies.

The fortunate generations of the future are going to make the best possible use of time, are not going to fail at working while thinking, at reading while working, and while reading, they will not neglect serving others for the sake of exalted ideals. They will know how to remain forever lively, forever colorful.

Via Fountain Magazine (By : M. Fetullah Gulen)

The Role of Education for Dialogue

“No one yet realized the wealth of sympathy, the kindness and generosity hidden in the soul of a child. The effort of every true education should be to unlock that treasure”
Emma Goldman


For centuries there has been much isolation (of various sorts) and years of conflict that have placed a wall between peoples, cultures, countries, and religions; this is because some people have been taught to hate each other. Poverty, religious fanaticism, and war have taught people all over the world to hate one another.

Despite the increased opportunities for dialogue today, the community of nations is also faced with serious economic, social, and cultural difficulties; the inequality between nations is growing, and many conflicts and serious tensions threaten peace and security. Just by looking at recent events, we can see that the world has witnessed a number of brutal wars and conflicts in the twentieth century alone. Bosnia is one of the examples of wars where ethnic cleansing and numerous ethnic and ideological conflicts have left a deep traumatic scar on the collective memories of the nations in the region. The Palestinian-Israeli conflict is another conflict that is just as painful.

The crises in Kashmir, Afghanistan, Chechnya, Karabag, and many other parts of the world can be added to this painful list. The purpose of this article is to find some possible answers to the following questions: Why do people not solve their problems through dialogue? What prevents them from doing this? Or in other words, who or what is to blame?

My immediate answer to all these questions is just one word: education. But the meaning of that word is not as simple as it seems. It can be defined in different ways, such as the following: Education is an organizational substructure that prepares individuals in order that they will eventually become useful for:

• The ongoing operation of their current social structure;

• The preservation and continuation of such a social structure in following generations. Or;

Education is a substructure that prepares new generations so they can eventually improve on current organizational structures (into which they have been thrown) by:

• Introducing mechanisms to smoothly implement improvements;

• Sustaining those mechanisms with improvements;

• Trying to preserve the stability of the social structure.

Once the question becomes “what is the purpose of education?” it becomes more complex:


“The only purpose of education is to teach a student how to live his life-by developing his mind and equipping him to deal with reality. The training he needs is theoretical, i.e., conceptual. He has to be taught to think, to understand, to integrate, to prove. He has to be taught the essentials of the knowledge discovered in the past, and he has to be equipped to acquire further knowledge by his own effort.”
Ayn Rand

“The central task of education is to implant a will and facility for learning; it should produce not learned, but learning people. The truly human society is a learning society, where grandparents, parents, and children are students together.”
Eric Hoffer

“The central job of schools is to maximize the capacity of each student.”
Carol Ann Tomlinson

“The one real object of education is to leave a man in the condition of continually asking questions.”
Bishop Creighton

“The aim of education should be to teach us rather how to think, than what to think-rather to improve our minds, so as to enable us to think for ourselves, than to load the memory with the thoughts of other men.”
Bill Beattie

As understood from the above quotations, it is not easy to find a single definition of what education is. Therefore, education has a twofold role to play in the questions asked above concerning “Education for dialogue” or “Education for hate.” In fact, the duality of the role of education emanates from the people, the educators, who use it for whatever their purpose is. This purpose can vary, being political, national, religious, antireligious, etc.... Thus, we arrive at the issue of preparing people as “good educators.”

All in all, education is the key to solving the greatest dilemmas of humanity. Investment in human resources represents the best hope for achieving growth in several areas, such as economic, social, and cultural, without forsaking the goals of the alleviation of poverty, social cohesion, and environmental sustainability. Achieving global sustainability will depend upon the contributions of young generations with the knowledge, training, and social commitment needed to create real change.

In the new millennium almost every region of the world will face tremendous challenges. The insistent pressures of globalization imply a new world order in which the only constant will be change. It seems that education will be one of the essential foundations of both a culture of peace and dialogue among civilizations. Education advocates the respect of universal values common to all civilizations (solidarity, tolerance, recognition of human rights, fundamental freedom for all, etc.). Education is also ideally suited to the transmission of national and universal cultural values and should foster the assimilation of scientific and technological knowledge without detriment being made to the capacities and values of the people.

 

Via Fountain Magazine (By : Ugur Tarman)

What Generations Expect from Education

What do we mean when we mention education and training in relation to our current and future generations? How should we teach our values to new generations and who is to undertake this sacred duty? We have to find the answers to these questions if we are to deal with matters related to the education of our future generations.

A system of education without a clearly defined target and purpose will only serve to confuse future generations. We have to be careful that our youth is taught the proper material in an effective manner to ensure that they are actually learning rather than simply becoming conduits of data.

The social structure of a nation is closely related to the importance it places on the education of its populace. The education of the current generation is especially crucial as they will become the educators of following generations and will share with their students the knowledge they have acquired as part of their own education and experiences. It is vital for the society and morality of a society that its values are transmitted to its younger generation in the process of their learning experience. Value transmission is best possible in a successful marriage, which thus makes family an important educational institution, a vital one for the continued existence of a nation. Those nations which fail to establish the institution of marriage on sound and essential values without regard to the spiritual and moral condition of their society are doomed to extinction.

The development of individuals is strongly influenced by other individuals, dominant customs and traditions, and more importantly by their parents. Similarly governments have a strong influence and authority over the different parts of its populace.

A nation that effectively utilizes their resources is closely aligned with the thoughts, concepts, and culture of the individuals who make up the society and with the prudence, foresight, and sincere devotion of those in power. The administrators that are responsible for the level of care given to individuals and their efforts toward becoming a social entity will be an indication of how closely aligned they are with the prophetic principle that "All of you are shepherds, and all of you are responsible for those under your care" and that "being glad with making others' happy instead of self concerns."

Those who are responsible for educating future generations - no matter under what title they do it - should never forget the importance of this. As members of society we try to do whatever it takes to ensure the best possible future for our children by doing everything in our power and overcoming any and all difficulties so that our children are not deprived of anything as we try to prepare a world like Paradise for them. Will it not be a waste of all our efforts if we fail to elevate them to the level of morality and virtue, the capital of true value, if we cannot elevate them to a state of satisfaction, having acquired consciousness and culture? The nations who obtain this capital will have gained a mysterious key to the treasures of the world. On the contrary, the masses that have not elevated to the level of such a cultivation and understanding will lose their first struggle for social life in the future and be knocked out at the first round.

If the new generations' minds are equipped with the sciences of their time and their hearts are not lit up with breezes from beyond and if they are provided with an ample education, with all their needs fulfilled and all opportunities available for them to succeed then they can look forward to a bright future. These future generations will be able to stand up to every kind of obstacle in the struggle of life, they will be able to overcome - material or spiritual - every kind of difficulty and will never give in to despair. All the hardships that we will have encountered along the way in providing our children with a better education will have been worth it.

As for the unfortunate ones who are deprived of this consciousness will waste away the inheritance they received from their fathers, spiritually as well, they will lead an unstable and pessimistic life, and then perish between the ferocious teeth of misery.

The authorities today, who are at the crossroads of elevating their children to the level of humanity or leaving them to be beasts in human form, have to think the responsibility on their shoulders heavier than mountains and find more profound and consistent cures against the decays brought by years-long neglects. Otherwise, the unfortunate generations who lost the most precious ores of their being in the unknown seas for thousands of times through different erosions will completely lose their ability to germinate and they will become completely barren, never be able to find existence with their own essence, and never reach the glory of the past again.

 

Via Fountain Magazine (By : M. Fetullah Gulen)

Second Life or Afterlife?

What would you think if you overheard two people talking about Second Life? Although this may sound like the afterlife to most, that is, where, after facing the Judgment of God humans will be either admitted to Heaven by His mercy or driven into Hell by His justice, today, for millions of players, “Second Life” also refers to one of the most famous online virtual worlds where players can create an online life for themselves.

Every day, millions of people log on to online environments, seeking a second life in virtual worlds. It is noticeable that the average user is 26 years old, and spends 22 hours per week in his/her alternative lives [1]. After such dedicated players spend this much time in these worlds, not much is left for their offline activities. They literally live “in” these virtual worlds. What leads them to prefer a virtual life over a real one? Is something missing from the daily life? Why are people not happy or satisfied with what they have? Are they asking for more or looking for something they don’t have?

In Second Life, users can create a new character for themselves, a lifestyle, an environment or anything else they might imagine. Second Life, with about 17 million users, has its own economy and currency (Linden). Residents are able to buy and sell amongst themselves directly using Linden, which is also exchangeable for US dollars. Second Life's GDP (2007) is estimated between $500 million and $600 million [2], which is larger than the GDP of 19 countries in the world. In October, 2008 users spent approximately $30 million. Although Second Life does not have a government, many countries have embassies in Second Life. The online world even has an in-world newspaper.

Many forms of sports activities have also appeared in Second Life. Residents can watch or participate in football, soccer, boxing, wrestling, and auto racing. Virtual art centers and museums allow artists to create and exhibit their works in a way which might not be possible in real life because of physical constraints or high costs. Streaming vocal and instrumental music or inworld instruments allow performances of live music. Live theater is also available in Second Life. The British act Redzone toured for their new album on Second Life (2007).

There are several studies [3] discussing how these online worlds could be used for educational purposes. There are regions in the virtual world of Second Life for educational purposes, and a variety of topics are covered. Virtual worlds are favored because they are thought to provide more engaging experiences than traditional online learning. Virtual worlds can provide an interactive imitation of real life classroom environments. 80 percent of British universities have teaching and learning activities in Second Life. More than 300 universities around the world are taking advantage of the platform to provide educational services at lower costs.

Good and evil exist in Second Life, so religion is also finding its way into this world. Many religious organizations have opened churches, cathedrals and meeting places in Second Life. People are more willing to explore and discuss spiritual things in a virtual world [4]. Second Life also has a place to perform the Hajj ritual, providing a virtual experience before making the actual pilgrimage in person. However, some residents find the idea of virtual worship odd. They prefer spending their time flying, shopping, or engaging in other activities.

Are all these activities making users happier or just helping them to forget their real life? The more users spend time in these worlds, the more they became addicted to their new lifestyle, becoming alienated from the events and responsibilities of real life.

Fethullah Gulen, a Turkish scholar, addresses this question in one of his latest articles [5] as follows: “In spite of the dizzying developments brought by science, the new opportunities offered by technology, and so many means promising us welfare and happiness, the people of our time do not seem very happy. On the contrary, they are overcome by unease and depression more than ever. Although it should not be expected to be any other way, mere worldly opportunities, which are not supported by personal relationships to faith or knowledge of God, are not deepened or given meaning, and obviously do not mean much.”

Despite the large number of educational and social features available in virtual worlds, the main motivation that leads players to games like Second Life seems to be a lack of satisfaction with their real lives. People are either not happy with their work, lifestyle or social environment, or they are seeking a second chance in life, a fresh start. These worlds approximate real life ever more closely with each new technological development. It remains to be seen how virtual worlds will affect real human relationships. One day people may not realize the difference between real and virtual worlds. Is Second Life simply taking over real life?

Gulen makes a similar connection between technological developments and the afterlife: “Even though it would not be correct to speculate today on the days to come, people who predict the future claim that the world will become so attractive for the people of physicality and carnal pleasures that it will make them forget Paradise. With a feeling and passion that gives priority to immediate pleasures and delights, they will say like Omar Khayyam, ‘The past and future are all but tales; enjoy yourself now, do not spoil your life.’ Thus, they will see life as only eating, drinking, and resting, constantly making their choices in favor of worldly ease and comfort.” The belief that on a particular day all humans will be held accountable before God for their actions in this life helps to support and protect the social dynamics of society. Success in the afterlife depends on remembering that one day we will be held responsible for every single deed of our earthly life.

Social dynamics and problems related to online gaming have been discussed widely in academic arenas. The large amount of time, money and resources spent on these games, as well as the associated social and behavioral problems, and loss of productivity are only some of the issues that come to mind. Scholarly articles on ethical issues of life in virtual worlds [6] have increased lately, and many topics are broached, including matters of privacy, monitoring and eavesdropping, the fear of exploitation, identity theft, the ethical impact of aesthetic decisions, values and ethics that are manifested in the social processes and their relevance to activities, professional ethics, standards of integrity, given identity issues and practices, malevolence and altruism, legal and ethical doctrines of confidential and privileged information, ethics for students and instructors, ethical development stages and issues, vandalism, harassment and crime.

Are we living our lives to the fullest? Everyone has the opportunity to choose how they live in this world. If this time is not well spent, that is, acting as if there is no responsibility or judgment for every action, what would be the difference between people living in this world as if it is a game, and those playing their lives away in these online worlds? The Holy Qur’an says: “This life of the world is but a pastime and a game, but the home of the Hereafter, that is Life if they but knew” [7]. Some people prefer their online lives to real life, and unfortunately many others are not aware that their actions evince their preference for the real life over the afterlife.

The movie Matrix has a similar story. The Matrix is a virtual world for people whose bodies are connected to the Machines, which use the bioelectricity and thermal energy of humans as their energy supply. Humans live out their lives in this virtual reality that resembles the 21st century without knowing that they are in a simulation. In the movie, a group of free humans attempts to rescue (unplug) others from the Matrix. The main challenge here is to make others believe that there is another life which is more real or important than the one they are living. In fact, as human beings we are all confronted with the same challenge. Either we gain an understanding of the meaning of our existence in the world and live accordingly, or we are enslaved by worldly ease and comfort, immediate pleasures and delights.

I would like to end with a point the Gulen made on happiness: “It seems that until human beings come to realize their essence, it will not be possible for them to put their affairs in order or to attain the happiness they long for. And this is particularly so if they are trying to suppress their spiritual appetite through luxury, comfort, and seeking to satisfy their physical pleasures because they are unable to realize their real problems.”

Acknowledgment: This article has been produced at MERGEOUS [8], an online article and project development service for authors and publishers dedicated to the advancement of technologies in the merging realm of science and religion.

References
[1] Yee, N. “The demographics, motivations, and derived experiences of users of massively-multiuser online graphical environments.” Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments 15:309–329.
[2] Wikipedia, Linden Dolar, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linden_dollar
[3] Delwiche, A. (2006). “Massively multiplayer online games (MMOs) in the new media classroom.” Educational Technology & Society, 9 (3), 160-172.
[4] Anselmo, D., 08/01/2007, “A ‘Second’ Way to Save Souls” (churchsolutionsmag.com).
[5] Gulen, M. Fethullah, “Days of Depression and Our Atlas of Hope,” The Fountain Magazine, Issue 67, 2009.
[6] Emerging Ethical Issues of Life in Virtual Worlds, Information Age Publishing, Charlotte, NC, June 15, 2009.
[7] The Holy Quran (29:64).
[8] Mergeous, http://www.mergeous.com

Via Fountain Magazine (By : Halil I. Demir)

 

Halil I. Demir is postdoctoral scholar in the area of Informatics, and lives in Iowa.

The Islamic Propensity for Science

The naive view of religion and science sees them in direct opposition to one another, and given the chequered history of religion and science this is perhaps understandable. Examples such as the incarceration of Galileo, the Scopes Trial and more recently the issue of creationism are at the forefront of the social consciousness, so undoubtedly there is some history of confrontation between religion and science. Islam, on the other hand, has historically seemed to have fewer difficulties with science, and indeed often has been conducive to it.

There are many possible explanations for this, not least of which is the presentation of science and the use of reason in Islamic texts, but also sociological factors, such as different economic situations during the Middle Ages, and internal political structures. There is also the fact that the Qur’an simply doesn’t contradict scientific findings .

The Middle Ages (or the Dark Ages as they used to be known) of European civilisation extended between the 5th and 16th centuries, encapsulating the Islamic Golden Age spanning the 7th to 16th centuries. It was once thought that Islamic science during this time was little more than a translation of Greek conclusions, however there is now sufficient evidence to suggest that this was a scientific revolution in its own right, and it contributed greatly to the basis of modern scientific thought. Part of the reason science played such a key role in the Golden Age of Islam is surely because of the importance placed on it in Islamic texts. There are hundreds of references in the Qur’an related to human knowledge and contemplation, including the first command of God, instructing humanity to “read.” The hadith also contains hundreds of references the Prophet made to seek knowledge, including one instance of the him saying, “Seek for science, even in China” ; the significance of China being that it is the furthest known country to the Muslim Empire. There is a moral obligation for Muslims to seek knowledge; in fact, learning is often seen as a form of worship and a quest for spiritual perfection through knowledge. This surely acted as an incentive that enabled them to become the great scientific civilization they were during the Golden Age. The Renaissance, which followed the Middle Ages, could be described as the Western equivalent

There is nothing in the Bible to discredit specific scientific discoveries, though it also doesn’t encourage the scientific pursuit in the same manner as the Qur’an. The Bible does convey an ordered world in which science is not only possible but should tend towards the truth, but any such scientific commendation can also be levelled at the Qur’an.

What’s unique about the Qur’an, however, is that it is not as susceptible to the human fallibility excuse, in that it was written immediately after the Archangel Gabriel imparted the Revelation to Muhammad, it was arranged by Muhammad himself, and has remained unchanged since, at least when speaking of the original Arabic and not a translation. The areas of science explored in the Qur’an range greatly from astronomy to physics to biology, and all seem to be in well keeping with modern scientific findings.

Perhaps not surprisingly, the Qur’an does not contain any hardline indisputable science, however. The meanings of many of the Arabic words are subtle and open to interpretation, and different interpretations of the same passages have been used to support different scientific enquiries at different times.

The rapid expansion of the Muslim empire beginning in the 7th century brought great wealth and security, and this naturally led to great advancements in science and technology, similar to the Greek and Roman empires before them. Once an empire establishes itself and can comfortably support its population in terms of food and security, it can turn sights on its lesser problems, and attempt to solve them using its ingenuity, thus making great strides in science and technology. The West had, as already noted, become stagnant in these fields following the collapse of the Roman Empire. Europe was unified once more under the Catholic Church, but there was much animosity between the destitute working class and the self-interested ruling class. It was a time of prosperity for few, and the Muslim empire attracted great minds and became the hub of scientific achievement. Viewed in this context, the Islamic Golden Age is not so much a religious achievement as it is a cultural achievement of a burgeoning civilisation.

The contrast with the Western Renaissance is clear. Galileo, a friend of the pope and of the church, is the most famous example. Upon expressing his approval of Copernican theories, he was incarcerated for heresy. The pope famously rebutted Galileo’s arguments by stating that Galileo could not assert a scientific theory that contradicted the scripture unless it could be shown that God, in his infinite power, could not have brought it about that all the evidence in support of the theory existed and the theory itself not be true. This is of course an impossibly high standard of truth for science to achieve, and furthermore put in jeopardy all scientific knowledge. Galileo was, however, purposefully antagonistic towards the church, and may have done more harm, especially for the relationship between religion and science, than he is usually given credit for. Rene Descartes was on the verge of publishing a similar paper in support of Copernicus, but suppressed it upon seeing the treatment that Galileo received. During this time, it was required that all work be approved by representatives of the church before it was published in order to avoid the publication of any heretical material. This was catastrophic for any scientific theory that may have contradicted the interpretation of the scripture as advocated by the Church. Islamic science avoided this problem. While the Church, as a figure of authority, advocated a particular interpretation of the scriptures and had in the past exercised this authority with punitive measures such as excommunication and incarceration, Islam had no centralised authority with the same level of control. The closest analogous administration is the caliphate, whose role has changed over time, but never gained the overarching power of the Christian church. This could well be due to the Muslim Empire being founded by many small tribes with Bedouin roots, and city states, who had no history of being subject to a greater authority. Also, due to their disparate nature, both culturally and geographically, such an overarching authority was a logistical impossibility. Furthermore, the legitimacy of any one caliph was always controversial; the most divisive split of course being between Sunni and Shi’a Muslims, the former believing Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law, was his rightful successor, while the latter preferring his cousin and son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib. Such disagreement continued and constantly threatened the supreme power of the caliphate, despite Muhammad’s assertion that Muslims should fulfil oath of allegiance to only one caliph. This disagreement in turn led to a lack of a single ruling authority, and a lack of one single interpretation being enforced across the empire. Often, the interpretation of the Islamic texts varied from community to community. Further supporting a lack of enforcement was the Qur’an. “There is no compulsion in religion” can be interpreted both as a decree of tolerance to other religions, and also a decree of tolerance within Islam itself. This aspect of religious tolerance must surely have played some part in the ability of Muslims to abide alternate interpretations of their text, and also rationalise discrepancies between the text and the constantly evolving hypotheses of science. Without an authority to push an anti-scientific agenda, the Muslim Empire became a hub of scientific enquiry which, along with an unusual tolerance for religion, attracted scientific minds from across the entire region.

There is another hypothesis that should be noted, which is that the view of Christianity and science being in direct opposition to each other is unwarranted. After all, modern scientific prosperity grew out of the Christian West, and it can also be argued that without the fundamental view that nature is uniform and has an observable order and organisation, provided initially only by religion, science would never have even had a grounding on which to start. Perhaps religion and science are not as diametrically opposed as they seem, and their previous confrontations have been due to misunderstandings that are not fundamental to their positions. While it is undoubtedly true that Christianity and science have in the past had a tolerant, if not a symbiotic, relationship, it is nevertheless the case that for quite some time the two held hostile policies in regard to each other, and these policies have resulted in animosity that exists even to this day. This animosity is not a necessity, however, as demonstrated by Islam.

It seems it can then be concluded that the roots of the Islamic propensity for science are a product of both Islamic texts and sociological factors, such as a lack of a centralised authority pushing a particular interpretation of the text. The search for knowledge which the Qur’an advocates must surely have helped initiate this scientific resurgence, but it was also the ability of the Muslim population to interpret the findings of the scientific community (and it should be noted that Muslim and scientific groups were by no means mutually exclusive) in a way that didn’t conflict with their theological beliefs which allowed science to flourish. The Golden Age of the Muslim Empire should stand as an example to all cultures that science and religion can coexist, and not just tenuously, but harmoniously.

Notes
1. H.R. Turner. 1997. Science in Medieval Islam:
An Illustrated Introduction, Austin:
University of Texas Press, pp. 5-9.
2. George Saliba. 2007. Arabic Islamic Science
and the Making of the European Renaissance,
Cambridge, Mass. MIT Press.
3. A.H. Syed, Islam and Science, New Delhi,
2003, p. 111.
4. Ibid.
5. Maurice Bucaille. 1978. The Bible, the
Qur’an and Science: The Holy Scriptures
Examined in the Light of Modern Knowledge.
Indianapolis, p. 92.
6. Syed. 2003. p. 116.
7. Syed. 2003. p. 115.
8. F. M. Donner. 1981. The Early Arab Conquests.
Retrieved 16/5/2009 from http://www.
fordham.edu/halsall/med/donner.html
9. John Cottingham. 1991. The Philosophical
Writings of Descartes. Cambridge: CUP, pp.
xi–xiii.
10. Sachiko Murata, William Chittick. 1994.
The Vision of Islam. New York, p. xxiv.
11. A. H. Siddiqui. Translation of Sahih Muslim.
2007, 20:4543.
12. Qur’an 2:256.
13. Syed. 2003. p. 112–113.

Via Fountain Magazine (By : Stephen Pant)

Stephen Pant is a freelance writer in Australia. He has a degree in philosophy and history from Monash University, Melbourne.

Reccuring DNA in Genome Structure

A genome is a data book or registry which records the past and future of living organisms. It dynamically and simultaneously stores hereditary and biological information in three different hierarchical levels belonging to three different time periods.

The first is the preservation of characteristic, long term data imprints that describes the development of an organism in the stable DNA sequences.

Second is the storage of medium term epigenetically featured data that is carried a couple of generations further down the cellular level. Epigenetic information is not stored within nucleotide sequences but in the chemical modifications of these sequences (like the methylation of repeated strings of GC dinucleotide).

Third is the storage of data generated as a result of dynamic interactions between proteins, RNA and DNA in order to adapt to the events and changes during cellular life cycle in the form of nucleoprotein or DNA-protein complexes.

The data generation and storage capacity of DNA in three different hierarchical levels and time periods demonstrates that genome plays a plethora of roles in cellular activities and heredity. Formatting of genome for its generation and storage of data is carried out via DNA sequences of various features. Genomic system is composed of repeating DNA sequences. DNA sequences (satellite) function as a marker as they repeat numerous times in various frequencies. Genome includes genomic folders similar to that of computer systems. These genomic folders, also known as the epigenetic index of genomes, are responsible for the remodeling of chromatin and the coordinated control of genomic functions. Repeating DNA sequences play a critical role in replication of genome (making a copy of DNA), dispersal of copied DNA into daughter cells and construction of support systems that enable organization of chromatins.

It is possible to better understand genomic functions in relation to examples such as memory sticks and hard drives that are used in electronic information systems. The difference between a genome as a basic data-information storage medium from a hard disc is that it can be replicated as required by its nature and these replicas can be transferred to daughter cells. Following examples could be given to illustrate that a genome gains function only when it interacts with various data processing modules in the cell.
a) A copy of genome is produced by cellular DNA replication system
b) Correct localization of each genome copy towards daughter cells is only possible when chromosome segregation system works (the centrosomes and microtubules)
c) The central transcription system is responsible for the copy of data from DNA to RNA. Different gene expression patterns are developed via regulation of transcription time and level with the help of transcription factors and a web of cell signalization.

Very intricately organized genomic system structures are designed through the successive combination of protein encoding sequences, signals distributed in various places and repeating DNA sequences. Formatting of genome resembles formatting of computer programs. Various repeated serial commands of computer software are used to allocate addresses to files independent of the original data contained; different computer systems use different signals and structures to manage programs. In a similar fashion, diverse living species often utilize repeating DNA sequences and chromosomal structures to organize the encoded information and to format their genomes.

Diversity and variation of repeating DNA sequences are building blocks that are constructed into different genomic system structures. Genomes of different organisms bear characteristic system morphology just like computers with various operating systems and hardware. For instance, animal cells are created as a good model to take and incorporate foreign DNA into their genomes. Genetic data transfer among organisms of the same kind is referred to as “vertical gene transfer” whereas transfers between different species, genuses and classes are called “horizontal gene transfer.” Mobile DNA sequences like transposons are very effective horizontal gene transfer agents.

Cellular differentiation and morphogenesis (formation of tissue and organ from cell) is not programmed completely in the primary structure of the DNA sequence. Components of modular programs are encoded in a flexible way and a continuous renewed and recombined arrangement is enabled when needed.
The reason behind creation of different organisms from a single genome is this utilization of such genomic structure. Metamorphosis, that is the development of different organisms like invertebrates such as a caterpillar and a butterfly, is a good example of this feature.

Two organisms from the perspective of the same genomic protein and RNA codes can be considered as two different species. Different genomic structures and repetition of sequences among different organisms are distinctive criteria for the identification of species since these features can lead to mismatch of reproductive cells, different expression patterns of genetic code sequences, and may cause ecological diversity as well. That is why repeated DNA sequences are very important in studying parental relationships. Today, microsatellite DNA as repeated DNA sequences are used to configure biological relations among individuals in forensic sciences. Plant species vary in respect to the repeated sequences in centromeres in their chromosomes; these variations are used for identification of species. Main determinants of genomic system structure are diversity, frequency, and genomic localization of repeated DNA sequences. To explain this with examples, we could say that successively repeated sequences at centromeres, telomere repetitions and transcription, packing of chromatin, repeated sequences that are spread throughout genome in charge of cellular functions like nucleus localization are the main elements of the genome system structure. Genome is a single integrated system that is controlled closely and remotely via communication webs that use repeated sequences.

While explaining the Qur’anic concept of the Manifest Record (36:12) Bediuzzaman Said Nursi, the great renovator of Islamic thought in Turkey in the twentieth century, wrote that the Manifest Record expresses one aspect of Divine knowledge that is related “more to the past and future than to the present. It is a book of Divine Destiny that contains the origins, roots, and seeds of things, rather than their flourishing forms in their visible existence” (30th Word, Second Aim).

Inspired from this view, a seed can be considered as a tiny adorned form of Divinely creative command as programs and indexes and as a determinant for those programs and indexes in the organization of an entire tree. Since the Manifest Record book, as a title of Divine knowledge and command, observes the past and the future rather than the present, the genome of a grain or a seed acts like a library and an archive in which the future and past of an organism is written.

Sequences encoding different information in DNA
Different information types corresponding with various DNA sequences exist in the genome. These DNA sequences that were considered junk for a long time because they were not coding proteins, have in fact been found to be responsible for an amazing array of functions in genomic structure. Some of these sequences include:

1) Group determining sequences that enable coordinated or successive expression of genes,
2) Sequences acting as a marker in charge of initiation and termination during transcription of DNA to RNA ,
3) Signal sequences responsible for conversion of primary immature RNA, sequences into smaller functional RNA molecules,
4) Transcription control sequences that determine the expression frequency of genes,
5) Sequences that identify and mark the initiation regions for intensification and remodeling of chromatins,
6) Sequences that make binding regions which affect the relocation of genome in nucleus or nucleolus,
7) Sequences that target regions where covalent DNA modification (methylation) with functional groups like methyl takes place,
8) Sequences that control and identify the regions responsible for initiation of DNA replication,
9) Sequences that make the structures which enable completion of replication at terminal ends,
10) Sequences at the segregation points that enable equal distribution of copied DNA molecules into daughter cells and centromere sequences,
11) Sequences responsible for guidance during repair of DNA bound errors and damages,
12) Start point sequences used for repackaging of genomes,

Recurring sequences exist in the genomes of many organisms and shows great structural diversity. Recurring elements function as an initiator or terminator for heterochromatin regions. Furthermore they form an important scaffold and binding spots for folding of DNA structure. As if they carry out the job of an architectural mold in specific shaping of genome to be packed into a very limited area. The ratio of repeating sequences in genome (60-90%) is much more than sequences that are encoding proteins and RNA (10-40%). To explain it with an example, chromosomes in human genome are made up of packages of protein-DNA such as heterochromatin and euchromatin. Heterochromatin regions usually make up the regions with no transcription whereas euchromatin regions feature DNA transcription.

The ratio of protein encoding sequences to the entire human DNA is approximately 1.2%. Around 43% of euchromatin regions are composed of recurring and mobile DNA elements. 18% of heterochromatin region is also made of satellite (dense repeating sequences) and mobile DNA elements. Therefore almost 50% of human genomic DNA is composed of these repeating DNA sequences. In bacteria however, these only make up around 5-10% of the genome. These sequences were described as parasitic and junk individual DNA structures up until today and still continues to be described thus by many researchers and scientist. Nevertheless, even today, mobile DNA elements and repeating sequences are accepted as genomic parasites. Recent advances in the last ten years that have demonstrated this is not true, have instead revealed the vital importance of repeating sequences in genomic functions.

Repeating DNA sequences affect chromatin (dense pack of DNA and protein) structure in two ways. Irregular repeating DNA sequence copies contain binding regions for proteins that organize DNA. Heterochromatin (darker since it is densely packed chromatin) inhibits transcription and recombination, delays replication, and generally blocks the reading of information in DNA sequences that contain genetic coding. Heterochromatin regions are distributed throughout the chromosome. Because of this, presence of regions with coupled successive repeated sequences triggers heterochromatin formation.

In fruit flies, placement of protein encoding loci required for eye pigmentation near the heterochromatin blocks in centromeres (phenomenon of position effect) is provided via organization of chromosomes and thus, formation of phenotypic characters are inhibited. The “phenomenon of position effect” is convincing evidence that genome is a major system which is integrated with composition of partially repeating DNA sequences. When heterochromatin amount is increased in XYY male fruit flies, reorganized pigmentation of eye expression decreases. In XO males, when heterochromatin amount decreases, inhibition becomes severe. Changes in levels of protein which binds to special heterochromatin specific DNA regions generate opposite effects. Decrease in these proteins reduces or suppresses “phenomenon of position effect.” Surplus synthesis of these proteins also enriches this effect.

Repeating DNA sequences play an important role in the transfer of genome into daughter cells. For instance, they function in formation of the centromeres as chromosomal binding regions for microtubules, during gamete formation as linear terminals of chromosomes are replicated, and during chromosomal matching. Distribution of repeating sequences plays a major role in configuration of genomic functions. Each genome has genomic system structure that is shaped dependent on the amount of repeating DNA sequences to a major extent.

Going back to Nursi’s explanation of the Manifest Record, we can draw a parallelism between the book of the universe and the book of revelation, the first of which shows us that certain sequences in the genome are repeated for significance and necessity, just as many verses are repeated frequently in the Qur’an with nuances to refer to different meanings, benefits, and purposes, opening a wider space for many interpretations.

A genome is not only a book that contains protein and RNA codes, but also has a complex system structure with many functions for cellular vitality. The most needed sequences are those that are repeated more frequently. They are not pieces of junk DNA as predicted, they are jewels Divinely constructed.

References
Shapiro J. A. 2001. “Genome Formatting for Computation and Function :Genome Organization and Reorganization in Evolution: Formatting for Computation and Function.” Presented at a symposium on "Contextualizing the Genome," Ghent University, Belgium, November 25 - 28, 2001 (Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci., in press)
Shapiro, J.A. 2005. “A 21st century view of evolution: genome system architecture, repetitive DNA, and natural genetic engineering.” Gene 345, pp: 91–100.
Shapiro J. A. and Sternberg R. V. 2005. “Why repetitive DNA is essential to genome function.” Biol. Rev., 80, pp. 1–24. Cambridge Philosophical Society.

Via Fountain Magazine (By : Hamza Aydin)